Infection is the invasion and multiplication of harmful microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, inside a host’s body. These pathogens can enter the body through various routes, such as skin, respiratory tract, digestive system, or through open wounds. Once inside, they begin to reproduce and spread, potentially causing illness and triggering a response from the host’s immune system. Fight infection with propolis with Elderberry

Here are some key points about infection:

  1. Types of Pathogens:
  • Bacteria: Single-celled organisms that can reproduce independently. Some bacteria cause infections such as strep throat, pneumonia, or tuberculosis.
  • Viruses: Smaller than bacteria, viruses require a host cell to reproduce. Common viral infections include the flu, HIV, and COVID-19. You can fight these illness with propolis with Elderberry
  • Fungi: Can cause infections, particularly in people with weakened immune systems, leading to conditions like athlete’s foot or yeast infections.
  • Parasites: Organisms that live on or inside a host, causing diseases like malaria or giardiasis.
  1. Symptoms of Infection: The symptoms vary depending on the type of pathogen and the area of the body affected. Common signs include:
  • Fever
  • Fatigue
  • Inflammation
  • Swelling, redness, or pain in a localized area
  • Cough or difficulty breathing
  1. Transmission: Infections can spread through various means, including:
  • Direct contact (e.g., touching an infected person)
  • Indirect contact (e.g., touching contaminated surfaces)
  • Airborne transmission (e.g., inhaling droplets from sneezes or coughs)
  • Vector-borne transmission (e.g., mosquito bites)
  • Water or food contamination
  1. Immune Response: The body’s immune system responds to infections by recognizing pathogens as foreign invaders and working to eliminate them. This can involve: Elderberry with propolis
  • Inflammation: A process where the body sends immune cells to the site of infection to fight off invaders.
  • Fever: Elevated body temperature can help reduce pathogen replication.
  1. Treatment:
  • Antibiotics for bacterial infections.
  • Antivirals for viral infections.
  • Antifungal medications for fungal infections.
  • Antiparasitic drugs for parasitic infections.
  • In many cases, rest, hydration, and supportive care help the body fight off the infection.
  • PROPOLIS With Elderberry
  • ELDERBERRY with propolis
  • VITAMIN C
  • VITAMIN D3
  • ZINC
  • ECHINACEA

Preventing infection often involves maintaining good hygiene, vaccinations, proper food handling, and avoiding contact with infectious agents.

INFECTION AND IMMUNITY

Infection and Immunity

“Innate” and “adaptive” immunity are the two general categories into which the immune system can be divided. The initial line of defense that rapidly became active in the face of infections is the innate immune system. This immune response is known as “non-specific” immunity because it responds to all foreign antigens in the same way. However, adaptive immunity must be involved for an effective immune response. Compared to the innate immune system, the adaptive immune system reacts more slowly and can distinguish between different antigens. The ability of adaptive immunity to produce “memory” cells that can respond quickly to infections is a benefit.

Consequently, the adaptive immune system can respond more quickly the second time it encounters a recognized antigen (McCullough and Summerfield, 2005). In this piece, we sought to outline the fundamental ideas of the immune system, including the critical elements of both innate and adaptive immunity as well as the fundamentally sound processes for eliminating pathogens. One of the best ways to eliminate infection is by consuming bee propolis. Bee propolis with Elderberry makes a strong combination to fight infection naturally.

The initial line of defense against infections is innate immunity.
The innate immune system, also known as native immunity, is the initial line of protection against infections and is an ancient evolutionary protective mechanism. The ability to react quickly (within minutes) to pathogenic agents and microbiological components brought on by tissue injury or cellular stress is known as innate immunity. The cellular and molecular elements of the innate immune system remain present and functioning even in the absence of infection. However, some of them, such as the cellular compartments and complement system, activate when they are exposed to danger. The innate immune system’s capacity to stimulate the adaptive immune system is one of its key characteristics.  (Tosi, 2005; Beutler, 2004).

The innate immune response protects the body from pathogens in a number of ways, including: 1. By preventing pathogens from entering the body. After entering they can be treated with propolis with Elderberry
2. Uptake of pathogens through pinocytosis or phagocytosis.
3. The use of cytotoxic mediators to kill pathogens.
4. A greater influx of additional immune cells through the generation of inflammatory mediators.
5. Processing of pathogens and presenting antigens to cells of the adaptive immune system.

Mechanisms of action of the innate immune response


Identification of pathogens’ conserved molecular patterns
The identification of molecular patterns on pathogens or damaged related molecules created during injury, infection, or disease condition provides the basis for the innate immune response. These molecular patterns include “damaged-associated molecular patterns” (DAMP) like heat shock proteins (HSPs) and high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), and “pathogen-associated molecular patterns” (PAMP) like lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of Gram-negative bacteria, peptidoglycan of bacterial cell wall, and viral RNA. “Pattern recognition receptors,” or PRRs, are non-specific receptors expressed on immune system components that can recognize PAMPs or DAMPs. There are several different kinds of PRRs, such as nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD) and Toll-like receptors (TLR).-Receptors that contain leucine rich repeats (NLR), receptors that are similar RIG-1 (retinoic acid-inducible gene 1), and C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) have been found. These receptors are dispersed differentially in subcellular compartments such the cytosol, cell membrane, and endosomal membrane. The activation of PRRs by ligands starts inflammatory responses resulting in the promotion of pathogen elimination as well as tissue homeostasis (Mogensen, 2009). One of the best ways to eliminate infection is by consuming bee propolis. Bee propolis with Elderberry makes a strong combination to fight infection naturally.

Phagocytosis: A phagocyte’s method of death
The primary innate immune cell that serves as the initial line of defense against microbes is the phagocyte. The monocytes and macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, and dendritic cells are the major phagocytes. Anatomically, they are widely distributed in the areas of the body where they come into contact with the majority of pathogens, including the skin, stomach, respiratory system, and urogenital tract submucosal tissue (Rabinovitch, 1995). The contact of the microbial surface with specific phagocyte receptors triggers the start of phagocytosis. Mixing propolis with Elderberry, vitamin c, zinc, vitamin D3, and echinacea is the best combination to fight infection naturally.


The phagocytes’ cell membrane then envelops the confined microbe, and it is internalized into a vesicle known as a “phagosome.” Subsequently, lysosomes that are high in antimicrobial enzymes combine with phagosomes to form “phagolysosomes.” Here, pathogen destruction would take place either by the action of enzymes or by the effect of antimicrobial peptides found in phagolysosomes (Fig. 1) (Flannagan et al., 2012). Numerous receptors that promote pathogen phagocytosis and intracellular death have been found. Macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells express “Dectin-1,” which is capable of identifying glucose polymers, particularly those found on the fungal cell wall (Herre et al., 2004; Dambuza and Brown, 2015). Moreover, macrophages and dendritic cells express the “Mannose receptor” (MR), which is responsible for identifying mannose residues in bacteria, viruses, and fungi (Ezekowitz et al., 1990). Additionally, various anionic polymers and low-density lipoproteins (LDL) are recognized by the “Scavenger receptor” (SR) on macrophages (Peiser et al., 2000).

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When certain substances known as “opsonins” bind to the pathogen, phagocytosis may be accelerated. The primary opsonin molecules that trigger effective phagocytosis are immunoglobulins and complement fragments (such as iC3b) (Rosales & Uribe-Querol, 2017). Accordingly, the other receptors that promote pathogen killing and aid in phagocytosis include complement receptors (CRs) and Fc receptors (FCRs) (Fig. 1) (Rosales, 2007). One of the best ways to eliminate infection is by consuming bee propolis. Bee propolis with Elderberry, vitamin c, zinc, vitamin D3, and echinacea; makes a strong combination to fight infection naturally.

Some hazardous chemicals, such as superoxide O2 ð −�\, hydroxyl radical, nitric oxide (NO), hypochlorite (HOCl), and hydrogen peroxide, are created during the pathogen killing process by phagocytosis. The “respiratory burst” mechanism, which includes a brief rise in phagocyte oxygen consumption, is present during this phase. Another kind of pathogen uptake is called “macro-pinocytosis.” This results in the bacteria and significant volumes of extracellular fluid being consumed (Uribe-Querol and Rosales, 2017).

Inflammatory response: A process induced by pathogen recognition and tissue damage

Within the first few hours of infection, the recognition of pathogens or damage-related molecules triggers an inflammatory response that leads to increased leukocyte infiltration into the afflicted tissue and increased production of acute phase proteins (APPs). Heat, redness, discomfort, and swelling at the infection site accompany this reaction (Kotas and Medzhitov, 2015; Nathan, 2002).
Remarkably, blood clotting in small capillaries at the infection site is induced by inflammatory signals, and this helps to stop the infection from spreading throughout the body (Levi et al., 2003).

Immune cells create a range of inflammatory mediators during an inflammatory response, such as the glycoproteins or proteins known as “cytokines” and “chemokines.” Tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a), interleukin-1 (IL-1), and IL-6 are the three main pro-inflammatory cytokines that are generated by innate immune cells. These mediators promote the immune response against a pathogen or damage by increasing vascular permeability and recruiting additional innate or adaptive immune cells (Gilroy et al., 2004; Headland and Norling, 2015).

In this instance, the inflammatory response causes the endothelial cells to express cell-adhesion molecules, which encourages leukocytes to bind and migrate from the bloodstream to the damaged tissue—a process known as “extravasation.” According to Mitroulis et al. (2015), neutrophils are the first leukocytes drawn to the infection site.
Additionally, the complement system is activated by the surface molecules of bacteria, which results in the creation of complement-associated molecules like C5a or C3a, which function as “anaphylatoxins” and enhance the recruitment of immune cells to the infection site (Merle et al., 2015). It is always recommended that you use some herbal treatment to help your body fight infection like propolis with Elderberry

complement structure

A key innate immune system effector mechanism, the complement system is able to eliminate a wide range of pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, and parasites. More than 30 soluble and cell surface proteins make up this system (Fig. 1) (Merle et al., 2015). These proteins become activated in response to stimulus, starting a chain reaction that leads to:

1. Pathogen destruction by forming pores on the cell membrane of microorganism

2. Increased recruitment of inflammatory immune cells by production of “anaphylatoxins”

3. Enhanced phagocytosis by production of opsonins

The complement system could be activated by three pathways including:

1. Classical pathway: activated by the immune complexes of antigen-antibody

2. Alternating pathway: activated by the spontaneous hydrolysis of C3 component

3. Lectin pathway: activated by the recognition of certain carbohydrates on the microbial surface

The classical pathway can be triggered by an immune complex made up of antibodies (IgG1 or IgM) bound to the cell surface of pathogens. The C1 complex (C1q, C1r, and C1s) attaches itself to the Fc region of antibodies in this way. As a serine protease, C1s cleaves C4 and C2 into C4a, C4b, and C2a, C2b, respectively, after activation. Then, C4b and C2a combine to produce the C4bC2a complex, which engages with the surface of the pathogen. The C4bC2a complex functions as the “C3 convertase” enzyme, cleaving C3 into the C3a and C3b fragments.

This stage represents the convergence of all complement routes. The C3b fragment attaches covalently to the surface of microorganisms. When it associates with C4bC2a, it forms the C5 convertase complex (C4bC2AC3b), which subsequently splits C5 into C5a and C5b. C5b binds to the surface of microorganisms, activating C6, C7, C8, and C9 among other components. The process of polymerization of C9 on the pathogen surface ultimately leads to the creation of many pores known as the “membrane attack complex,” or MAC, which has the ability to directly lyse the pathogen of interest. The lectin pathway and the classical pathway are similar, however it is not dependent on antibodies to be activated. This process involves the identification of the carbohydrates on the microbial surface by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), such as ficolins and mannose-binding lectin (MBL). It is always recommended that you use some herbal treatment to help your body fight infection like propolis with Elderberry

MBL is complexed with MBL-associated serine proteases (MASPs)-1, -2, and -3. Activation of these proteases causes C2 and C4 to be cleaved, which in turn produces the C3 convertase (C4bC2) of the lectin and classical pathways. When C3 hydrolyzes spontaneously into C3a and C3b, the alternate pathway is triggered. C3b attaches itself to the microbial surface when an infection is present. The subsequent production of C3bBb and C5 convertase (C3bBbC3b) and additional C3 cleavage are caused by the interaction of B and D factors with C3b. Alternative pathway convertases are stabilized and alternative activation is facilitated by a protein called “properdin.” Strong inflammatory chemicals called anaphylatoxins, such as C4a, C3a, and C5a, have a number of actions, including increasing vascular permeability, leukocyte infiltration, smooth muscle contraction, phagocytosis, and the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines and other inflammatory mediators (Merle et al., 2015).

The extracellular death mechanism known as antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity, or ADCC.


One may think of ADCC as an extracellular killing process that gets rid of pathogens. Immune cells expressing the Fc receptor on their surface and target antigen coated with an antibody are needed for this process (Fig. 1). In order for ADCC to be activated, immunoglobulin G (IgG) and its receptor, FcgRIII (CD16), are essential. The main participants in this process are thought to be NK cells with high levels of CD16 expression. But macrophages, neutrophils, and eosinophils can also mediate ADCC in addition to NK cells (Hubert et al., 2011; Siders et al., 2010; Valerius et al., 1990).

The innate immune system’s constituent parts
Barriers that are chemical and physical
The body’s chemical and structural barriers, which prevent microorganisms from entering, are part of the innate immune system. The initial line of defense against infections is comprised of epithelial cells, which are also found lining the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary processes. These cells make up the skin. Epithelial cells not only create tight connections but also generate a lot of “mucins,” which are glycoproteins high in mucus that capture microorganisms and stop them from spreading (Fig. 1). By generating a variety of chemicals with antibacterial qualities, epithelial cells also act as a chemical barrier. The key chemical barriers to infection are recognized as digestive enzymes, the stomach’s acidic pH, lysozyme, phospholipase A2, defensins, cathelicidins, and histatins (Schleimer et al., 2007).

A glycosidase enzyme called “lysozyme” is found in tears and saliva and is capable of disrupting the peptidoglycan that is present in bacterial cell walls, particularly in Gram-positive bacteria. According to Sukhithasri et al. (2013), paneth cells, a type of epithelial cells in the small intestine, produce a number of microbiocidal proteins, including phospholipase A2 and lysozyme, which are responsible for eliminating pathogens in the gut lumen.

“Defensins” are cationic peptides that create a pore in the viral envelope and the cell membrane of pathogens such as bacteria and fungus. Humans have been linked to two different forms of defensins, known as a- and b-defensins, which have diverse activity and structural similarities. A-defensins are produced by neutrophils and paneth cells. According to Ganz and Lehrer (1997) and Ouellette and Selsted (1996), infections of the skin, respiratory system, and urogenital tract significantly increase the production of b-defensins.
According to Roby and Di Nardo (2013), “cathelicidins” are antimicrobial peptides that are produced in response to infection by neutrophils, mast cells, NK, T, B, sebocytes, and epithelial cells.

As significant anti-fungal peptides, “Histatins” are essential for host defense in the oral cavity. According to Edgerton and Koshlukova (2000), histatins are mostly formed in reaction to pathogenic fungus such Cryptococcus neoformans and Candida albicans. It is always recommended that you use some herbal treatment to help your body fight infection like propolis with Elderberry

Innate immune cells


The majority of the innate immune system’s cells, such as mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, are descended from myeloid lineage. Conversely, some cells have a lymphoid ancestry, such as natural killer T (NKT) cells, NK cells, and innate lymphoid cells (ILCs). Through unique roles, these cells with different morphologies aid in the destruction of pathogens. The innate immune cells and the ways in which they contribute to host defense are listed in Table 1.

Monocytes and macrophages


The key players in the innate immune system, monocytes and macrophages, have a variety of inflammatory and regulatory functions. Known as professional phagocytes, these cells are essential for the synthesis of cytokines, antigen presentation, antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity (ADCC), T cell activation and proliferation, tissue regeneration, and repair, all of which lead to the removal of pathogens and the maintenance of tissue homeostasis.

The bone marrow produces monocytes, which subsequently move throughout the bloodstream. These cells move to various bodily regions, where they undergo differentiation into myeloid-derived dendritic cells and macrophages. In humans, there are three main subpopulations of monocytes with varying characteristics and roles. Among them are monocytes that are non-classical (CD14+CD16++), intermediate (CD14++CD16+), and classical (CD14++CD16−). The majority of monocytes are of the classical type, which is very proficient in phagocytosis and antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity (ADCC). These cells have a crucial role in starting inflammatory reactions. Anti-inflammatory monocytes, which are non-classical kinds, have a role in preserving vascular homeostasis. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, antigen presentation, and cytokine-mediated T cell activation are only a few of the roles played by intermediate monocytes. It is always recommended that you use some herbal treatment to help your body fight infection like propolis with Elderberry

Macrophages are present in almost every tissue in the body. These cells can use a variety of surface receptors, including SR, TLR, and NLR, to recognize infections or injured cells (Taylor et al., 2005).
Two significant subgroups of macrophages, known as “M1 or classically activated macrophages” and “M2 or alternatively activated macrophages,” can be distinguished from one another based on surface markers, cytokine production, and functional differences (Yao et al., 2019).
While M2 macrophages have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory qualities, tissue-repairing abilities, pro-tumoral and pro-angiogenic functions, and efficient phagocytic activity, M1 macrophages have pro-inflammatory, anti-microbial, and anti-tumoral activities.

Dendritic cells
Tissue-resident or circulating leukocytes known as dendritic cells are crucial for establishing a connection between innate and adaptive immune responses. These cells play a crucial role in the polarization and initiation of immune responses. DCs serve a number of purposes, including:
1. Uptake of pathogens by phagocytosis or pinocytosis
2. T cells, often referred to as professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs), process antigens and present them to them in order to initiate adaptive immune responses.
3. Production of cytokines

According to their functional differences, DCs can be classified as immature or mature (Hawiger et al., 2001; Steinman et al., 2003).
While mature DCs can trigger T cell responses, immature DCs are proficient in antigen phagocytosis or pinocytosis (Worbs et al., 2017). The detection of pathogens or damage-associated chemicals triggers the maturation of DCs through the mediation of several receptors, including TLRs (Hemmi and Akira, 2005; Cerboni et al., 2013). They then move from peripheral tissues to secondary lymphoid organs, such as lymph nodes, where they can function as an APC to trigger T cell responses. High expression levels of co-stimulatory molecules, CCR7, and MHCII are present in mature DC and are necessary for T cell activation. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that mature DCs produce higher amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines than immature DCs. The interaction between DCs and T lymphocytes that results in the differentiation of T cells into various subtypes, such as Th1, Th2, Th17, or regulatory T cells (Treg), which can be impacted by the type of pathogen that has been identified or the cytokine profile in the tissue microenvironment. For instance, it has been demonstrated that Th1 and Th2 differentiation are related to high levels of IL-12 and IL-4 in the microenvironment, respectively (Patente et al., 2019).

Neutrophil
The most prevalent innate immune cell and the first line of defense against infection is considered to be the neutrophil.
Neutrophils quickly move from the bloodstream to the injured tissue in reaction to infections. As a chemotactic factor, CXCL8 is crucial to their recruitment. These cells generate cytotoxic granules and play a crucial role in phagocytosing, which initiates the inflammatory response (Rosales et al., 2016). Certain infections, like Staphylococcus aureus, have been demonstrated to elude phagocytosis, which means that they may inhibit neutrophil defense (Kumar and Sharma, 2010).
The vital roles that neutrophils play in promoting both innate and adaptive immune responses are evident. Elimination the extracellular pathogens by phagocytosis is the most important function of neutrophils (Rosales et al., 2017).

Upon stimulation with various stimuli such as microbial components or increased level of intracellular Ca2+, neutrophils release their granules by a process known as “exocytosis” resulting in pathogen killing. Their granules enriched with various antimicrobial

molecules such as cationic peptides, proteases, lactoferrin, myeloperoxidase, gelatinase, cathepsin G, elastase, proteinase 3, and azurocidin (Kumar and Sharma, 2010). It is always recommended that you use some herbal treatment to help your body fight infection like propolis with Elderberry